Aim/PurposeThis paper studies how teacher agency is shaped by the affordances and autonomous functioning of a Smart Learning Environment (SLE) through the co-design of a learning activity. Specifically, it addresses the following research question: How does participation in the co-design of a learning activity supported by a Smart Learning Environment shape the development of teacher agency? The reported case study offers a novel contribution by connecting specific facets of teacher agency with SLE affordances while highlighting the decisive role of stakeholders in technology-supported teaching.

BackgroundThe affordances of Smart Learning Environments (SLEs) can have positive and negative effects on teachers’ roles. Prior studies highlight the benefits of involving teachers as co-designers of the technological solutions to foster teacher agency. However, these studies do not fully address the extent to which teacher agency may be empowered through educators’ involvement in co-design processes aimed at developing learning activities to be supported by SLEs. A case study was set up to reveal how teacher agency unfolds in such scenarios, considering the affordances of the SLE and the role of the SLE researchers as core mediating elements. Thus, this research delves into the study of a concept that requires further investigation, which is key to ensuring the trustworthy deployment of intelligent technologies.

MethodologyA qualitative case study was conducted grounded in the interpretivist research paradigm. Data was collected from multiple techniques and sources (e.g., semi-structured interviews, audio recordings of co-design meetings, artefacts generated in the process). The study spanned a multi-phase evaluation event design process, including: (i) the co-design of a learning activity to be supported by the SLE, (ii) the enactment of the learning activity, and (iii) a post-hoc reflection. The participants in this process were a Higher Education Teacher responsible for a course on School Organisation and Planning (which involved 71 first-year kindergarten pre-service teachers at a Spanish university), a lead researcher who was also responsible for the development of the SLE, and two researchers supporting the co-design. The naturalistic nature of the study, densely described, aims at strengthening the transferability of findings. Inductive coding was performed, and thick and context-related descriptions are reported to support credibility and transferability.

ContributionThis study proposes a foundation for comprehending how aspects of teacher agency relate to affordances and functions of SLEs within the co-design process of a learning activity. The findings were synthesised in a comprehensive model relating facets of teacher agency to the SLE by means of the co-design. A complete evaluation of the deployment of a novel SLE is reported through the lens of teacher agency. This work contributes to the ongoing discussion about the impact of intelligent technologies on teacher agency in Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL).

FindingsThe results showed that relevant SLE affordances aligned with the teacher’s pedagogical stances (e.g., the connection between formal and informal learning spaces and the support for contextualised learning) and empowered the teacher to create a learning activity that went beyond her past practices. However, the lack of support for collaborative learning deprived the teacher of fully attaining agency. The researcher’s role in facilitating the co-design was a key supporting element for the teacher agency. The individual nature of the student model of the SLE created a tension with the teacher’s pedagogical stances. While the autonomous functioning of the SLE was not perceived as a threat to the teacher’s practice, the teacher reported a preference to have more control over the SLE.

Recommendations for PractitionersTeachers need to be granted opportunities to shape the operation of SLEs to align with their pedagogical stances, goals, and constraints of higher education courses. Educators should also be involved in the development process of the SLEs or in the co-design process of learning activities that motivate and enable adjustments in the technology. Participatory co-design processes are necessary to materialise meaningful, innovative learning activities supported by intelligent technologies such as SLEs. These strategies could allow teachers to cultivate and preserve agency in evolving and complex TEL scenarios. Educators should also carefully consider the balance between their workload and their capacity to review automated suggestions provided by SLEs.

Recommendation for ResearchersWe recommend the TEL community to conduct in-depth studies and co-design processes of learning activities to identify constraints that may hinder teacher agency and to maximise opportunities for supporting it, specifically in scenarios in which SLEs have not been designed involving teachers. Researchers and developers should strive for simplicity and representativeness when designing student models embedded in SLEs. They should also ensure that teachers are given opportunities to remain in the loop when SLEs begin functioning autonomously.

Impact on SocietyThe concept of agency is central to current debates in educational research, in which technologies with intelligent features (e.g., Artificial Intelligence or SLEs) are being embedded. The impact of these technologies on teachers’ practice should be assessed at different levels of technological integration (e.g., design, enactment). This study shows how teacher agencies are shaped by the co-design process and emphasises the importance of early human involvement and strong communication among stakeholders. SLEs hold significant potential to help teachers transform their practice and sustain agency.

Future ResearchFuture research should deepen the understanding of how teacher agency develops during co-design and enactment with intelligent technologies, extending these findings to diverse contexts. We point out the need for an explicit study of how the best practices regarding student modelling can be achieved. This implies examining the configuration of SLEs’ student models and teachers’ stances.